Hammurabi's Empire

Hammurabi was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty who ruled for about 42 years. He secured victory over many small kingdoms and developed one very large and great kingdom. Babylonian civilization was at its peak under the rule of this great king called Hammurabi. He was the first king who codified laws. He was also a great politician and administrator.

Mother Goddess

Various statues and seals obtained from excavations indicate the worship of the Mother Goddess in those days.There are seals of that age depicting woman feeding milk and the seals where tree is coming out of her womb. This indicates that people used to worship Mother Goddess.

Sources of Study of Indus Valley Civilization

In order to know about Indus Valley Civilization, you have to depend upon the information obtained through excavations. The script used n the seals has not yet been deciphered. However, you come to know about Indus Valley Civilization through buildings, roads, bathing ghats and wells etc. Various excavations have also given a number of statues, ornaments, toys, seals and pots etc. belonging to Indus Valley Civilization.

Contribution of Chinese Civilization

Various Chinese inventions, which created  history were the printing press, the compass, the solar watch, the wind-mill and the seismograph, an instrument to measure intensity of earthquake. The were the Chinese people who taught this art of paper making to Arabs and then they took it to Europe.

             In short, i say that:

1. The concept of competitive exams was started in Chinese civilization.
2. Printing ink and paper were invented in China.
3. Paper currency, playing cards, gun-powder, seismograph were invented in Chinese civilization.
4. Silken clothes and pottery were first used in Chinese civilization.
   

Contribution of Egyptian Civilization

Egyptian civilization contributed a lot in the field of education, literature, science, sculpture, art and culture etc. Matriarchal family system, picturesque script, knowledge of paper and ink, irrigation, construction of dams and canals, creation of panchang (calendar), construction of pyramids, temples, development of script and number, process of division and multiplication.

Temple of Egyptian Civilization

Chaldean Empire and Its Civilization

Nebopolessar (625-604 B.C.), the chief of Chaldean tribe invaded and defeated Assyrian tribe and made Babylon as the capital of his kingdom. Nebuchad Najar was the most famous ruler of this tribe. After becoming king in 604 B.C., not only he extended his kingdom, he also invaded Jerusalem and defeated Jews. This incident is also mentioned in Bible. In memory of his queen, he got a garden planted, known as hanging garden.

This civilization was destroyed by Persian Emperor Cyrus.

Original Inhabitants of Sumerian

There are some scholars of the view that Mangols or Dravidians might have been the original inhabitants of Sumeria. There are also some scholars  of the view that Sumerian culture was a mixture of Aryan and Dravidian cultures. 

Spread of Aryans in India

Scholars have different views regarding the age of Aryans' arrival in India. 

• According to Jacobi and Winternitz, the Aryans arrived in India in about 8000 B.C. to 3000 B.C. 
• In view of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, "Aryans arrived in 6000 B.C."
• Max Muller said that, "Aryans might have come to India between 2000 B.C. and 1000 B.C.

Most of the scholars are of the view that Aryans arrived in India in 2000 B.C. from Iran. In the beginning, Aryans became settled in Punjab, and then in Ganga valley.

Extent of Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeological discoveries and excavations since 1921-22 have established that Indus Valley Civilization had a very large extent. It may be said that Indus Valley Civilization was far bigger than the civilization of Mesopotamian and Egypt.

Period of Indus Valley Civilization

Scholars have different views regarding the age of Indus Valley Civilization.

1. In the view of Sir John Marshall, the Indus Valley Civilization existed in about 3250-2750 B.C. 
2. Mackey takes it as between 2800-2500 B.C.
3. Madho Swaroop Vats says that this civilization existed between 3500-2700 B.C.
4. Rajbali Pandey considers Indus Valley Civilization to be of around 4000 B.C.
5. Albright holds the view that civilization existed in around 1750 B.C.
6. Allwyn is of the opinion that the Indus Valley Civilization existed between 2150-1750 B.C.

Various scholars mention different ages of Indus Valley Civilization, yet it is certain that this civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations of the world.

The Great Bath

The Great Bath measures 54 × 33 × 3 metres in length, breadth and depth. It is quadrangle shaped with well-developed varandahs, rooms and gallaries. The main bathing place is approx 10 × 8 × 3 metres in length, breadth and depth respectively. There are stairs to reach in the bathing tub. 

The architectural achievements of the Indus Valley Civilization are certainly praiseworthy.

Comparison Between Indus Civilization and Vedic Civilization

Similaritiesㅡ

1. Agriculture. Both the similarities were predminantly agriculture.
2. Domestication of Animals. There was domestication of animals in both the civilization.
3. Eating Habits. The people of both the civilizations had almost similar eating habits.
4. Dressing etc. The people of both the civilizations used almost similar kinds of ornaments and jewellery, dresses, make-up and hair- dressing.
5. Knowledge of Cotton Industry. The people of both the civilization had the knowledge of cotton industry.

Dissimilaritiesㅡ

1. Indus Valley Civilization was urban and Vedic Civilization was rural.
2. Indus Valley Civilization emerged before Vedic Civilization. 
3. Indus people were peace loving. Vedic people loved war.
4. Indus people worshipped statues. Vedic people worshipped nature.
5. There was no Varnashrama system in Indus Civilization. Varnashrama system was at the root of Vedic Civilization.

Importance of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization was primarily cultural and commercial. It was more expansive and widespread than most of the other contemporary civilizations. Indus culture has influenced Aryan culture in many ways. It is very difficult to segregate social, economic, political and religious life of present age with that of the Indus Valley Civilization.The greatest importance of Indus Valley Civilization lies in the fact that it is one of the ancient civilizations of the world.

The Great Bath

Post-Vedic Age

The period after Rigvedic Age is popularly known as post-Vedic Age. The culture of post -Vedic Age is known as post-Vedic culture. Vedic literature like Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upnishads and the Vedas like Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda were composed during in post-Vedic Age

Varnashram System

The people of the Vedic Age were happy and prosperous. The whole of the society was divided into 4 classes, viz., Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, called Varnashram. The Brahmins had to themselves learn and impart education to the society. Kshatriyas had to protect the society. Vaishyas, being the trading class, had to engage in activities as would satisfy the everyday needs of the members of society. Shudras had to engage in menial works. The whole life of mankind was divided into Brahmacharya, Grahistha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa.

Vedic Civilization (Vedic Age)

The period when the Vedic literature was written is known as Vedic Age. Vedic literature includes all the four VedasㅡRigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharva Veda. Besides Vedas, Vedic literature also includes Samhitas, Aranyakas and Upnishads. There are indications that the whole of Vedic literature was created between 1500 B.C. and 200 B.C. and this is the duration known as Vedic Age.

Vedic Gurukul

Native Place of Aryans

       In view of Max Muller, "The native place of Aryans was Central Asia and from there they moved to Iran, Germany and India"       According to Penca and Hurt, "Aryans were the natives of Germany".       Dr. Rajbali Pandey is of the opinion that, "Aryans were the natives of Madhya  Pradesh".       Dr. Avinash Chandra and Dr. Sampurnanand hold "Saptsindhu as the native place of Aryans".        Bal Gangadhar Tilak considered North Atlantic region as the native place of Aryans. However, most of the scholars take Central Asia as the native place of Aryans. 

Ancient Civilization of India

In the pleasing lap of nature, there flourished a civilization in the valleys of Ganga and Sindh in about 1500 B.C. Scholars are of the view that this ancient civilization was founded by Aryans. Therefore, this civilization is also known as Aryan Civilization or the Vedic Civilization. 

Relation between Indus Valley Civilization and Other Civilizations

Indus Valley Civilization had developed trading relations with countries like Afghanistan, Persia, Iran, Iraq (Mesopotamia), Southern Turkmenistan, Bahrain, Kuwait, Egypt and Crete.Various monetary seals of Indus Valley have been unearthed from Bahrain and Phelaka region near Kuwait. 

Evidences disclose that there were trading relations between Mesopotamia and Indus Valley Civilization. Clay inscriptions of the age of Sumerian King Sargon (2371-2316 B.C.) also establish such trading relations between Indus Valley and Other Civilizations.   

Indus Valley Civilization

In the Northern and Western parts of India and Pakistan, there flourished a civilization called Indus Valley Civilization which is the last of the great civilizations so far discovered. The Indus Valley Civilization is the oldest of the earlier great civilization ever known to the world. The main area of this civilization was the Indus and its tributaries. As the civilization was found in Harappa, Indus Valley Civilization is also known as Harappan civilization. 

History of Egyptian Civilization

According to celebrated historian Pilanders Pettry, Egyptian civilization had emerged around 10,000-12,000 years ago. However, the King Menes laid the foundation of monarchy in Egypt in about 3400 B.C. There were around 31 dynasties that ruled over Egypt. The history of Egypt may be divided into three parts as under :

         The Age of Pyramid (3400-2160 B.C.). There were four dynasties who ruled during Pyramid Age. The kings of this age assumed the little of Pharaoh.

    The Age of Feudalism (2160-1580 B.C.). Feudal had grown into power during this age of feudalism. The central administration lost most of its powers and Egypt became divided into small states. 

        The Age of Imperialism (1580-650 B.C.). The Egypt made an all round progress during the Age of Imperialism. Thatmos-Ⅰ organised petty states and laid the foundation of great empire; making Thebes as the capital of his empire. It was the golden age in the history of Egypt. 

The Chinese Civilization

The Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations of the world. When the people in other parts of the world were living uncivilized and barbaric life, the Chinese people were living highly cultured life. Voltaire holds the view that, "The body of Chinese empire is alive without any change since 4000 years. Chinese laws, conventions, language and fashion are still the same as they were earlier. Civilization of Egypt, Babylonia and Greece are not alive today. They have become confined to the pages of history, but the Chinese civilization is still alive and amazing the world at large. The continuity of this civilization has made it great".

The Chinese civilization flourished in the valley of Hwang-Ho river. Just as the Euphrates and the Tigris had been a blessing for Mesopotamia, so also were the rivers Hwang-Ho and the Yangtisikiang for china. 

The Egyptian Civilization

Most of the ancient civilizations of the world emerged and developed in river valleys. Egyptian civilization also developed at the base of River Nile. Hence, it is also known as Nile River valley Civilization. Egypt is located in North-East parts of African continent. In the North of Egypt, There is Mediterranean Sea; In the South, there is Desert; in the East, there is Red Sea and, in the West , there are dense forests.

The Egyptian civilization was discovered after the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1798 B.C., during Egyptian invasion, a stone-inscription was found at a place called Rogita at the mouth of River Nile. In the year 1922, the British archaeologist Howard Carter further disclosed the secrets of pyramids. 

Babylonian Civilization

The founder of Babylonian Civilization belonged to Sematic tribe. This tribe lived a nomadic life close to Sumerian region or Arabian desert. Due to their nomadic life style, they reached in the valley of Euphrates and Tigris. A very powerful ruler of this kingdom, Sargon 1st captured whole of Mesopotamia by 2500 B.C. This great ruler developed a city called Babylon and made it the capital of his kingdom. It was only after this city, this civilization became known as Babylonian civilization. The rulers of this civilization ruled for about 200 years.  

Sumerian Civilization

In the beginning of the 19th century that the archaeologists of England and France succeeded in the finding of Sumerian culture. In the year 1850, the British archaeologists Rawlinson excavated a stone inscription (Shilalekh) of Derius, the ruler of Iran. It contained some inscriptions in Persian and Babylonian languages. When it was read, the people came to know about Mesopotamian culture.

There was one more inscription in black stone found in 1901 near Susa. This inscription contained a legal code in Babylonian language. In the beginning of 19th century, Sir Leonard Wooly succeeded in some significant excavations at a very ancient place called Ur in Iran. In the excavations at Ur, slabs made of clay, ruins of buildings, large number of artistic objects and graves of the rulers were unearthed. A reading of the objects and various stone-inscriptions found in excavation revealed the greatness of Mesopotamian culture.

The Mesopotamian Civilization

The term Mesopotamia is made of two words- Meso + Potamian. Meso means "in the middle" and Potamian means "river".Thus, the word Mesopotamian means "land between two rivers", namely Euphrates and Tigris. Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) is situated in Western Asia. As a matter of fact, modern day Iraq in ancient time was known as Mesopotamia.The Mesopotamian civilization flourished between Euphrates and Tigris rivers. On the mouth of these rivers, the Sumeria culture; in the middle, the Babylonian culture and in the north, the Assyrian culture developed. These three cultures taken together are known as Mesopotamian culture.

Comparison between Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age

Paleolithic Age:

1. The tools made during Paleolithic Age were rough and of unusual size and shapes.
2. The main tools of Paleolithic phase were choppers and flakes implements. 
3. They were hunters. 
4. Paleolithic man was food gatherer. He did not have the skills of cultivation.
5. They used to eat raw meat, fruits and vegetables.
6. They had learned to spark fire.
7. They used to cover their body with leaves and bark of trees. 
8. The people did not have any idea of pottery.
9. The people of Paleolithic Age did not know about wheel.
10. They did not know about domestication of animals.

Neolithic Age:

1. The tools made during Neolithic Age were small, polished, sharp, edged and easy to hold.
2. The main tools of Neolithic people were knives, arrow head, battle axes, dagger etc.
3. They domesticated animals. 
4. Neolithic man was food producer. They had learnt the skill of cultivation. 
5.  They consumed milk, curd, wheat, maize, honey and meat too.
6. They had learned the various uses of fire.
7. They used to cover their body with wool and hides.
8. They had learned the art of making pottery with the help of wheel.
9. The people of Neolithic Age had discovered wheel. 
10. They had started domestication of animals.

New Stone Age or Neolithic Age

Neolithic Age starts from around 9000 B.C. The archaeologists have excavated a site of this age belonging to 7000 B.C.located in Mehargarh, Baluchistan in Pakistan. There are some places unearthed on the North of Vindhyas said to be of 5000 B.C. Some of the places of Neolithic Age excavated in South India are of 2500 B.C. Some places in Southern and Eastern India are merely of 1000 B.C.  

The people of this age used polished tools made of stone. They mainly  used axes made of stone. Large number f axes have been excavated in mountaneous regions. The people used to perform various functions with their tools, particularly axe.

Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic Age

The people of Mesolithic Age used to satisfy their by hunger by hunting, fishing and gathering food. They also became engaged in domestication of animals. the occupations like hunting,, fishing and gathering of food had been in existence since Paleolithic Age. However, the domestication of animals is related to Neolithic Age. 

The tools of Mesolithic man were very much different from his predecessors. The tools were small and known as microliths, mainly found in regions like Rajasthan, South Uttar Pradesh, Central and Eastern India and Southern part of Krishna river.

  

Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Age

Our earth is around 400 crore years ago. The fossils of paleolithic man have not been found in India. The  indications of the most ancient existence of human beings are found from the tools and implements of Glaciation Age that existed in around 2,50,000 B.C. The excavations indicate that human settlements first came to Africa than India. 

The tools of paleolithic age have been found in Chota Nagpur Plateau which can be of 1,00,000 B.C. Tools and implements of the age of 20,000 B.C.-1000 B.C. have been excavated from a place near Karnool, Andhra Pradesh. 

Stone Age

The stone age people used to shape pieces of stones and convert them into tools and implements. As the tools and implements were made of stone, this age is known as stone age. Stone age may be divided into three as following :

 (1) Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic Age.

(2) Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic Age.

(3)New Stone Age r Neolithic Age. 

Carbon-14 Dating

Carbon-14 Dating is the most scientific technique for determining the age of the archaeological objects. Archaeological has adopted this technique from Chemistry. All living things on earth contain radioactive carbon in themselves known as Carbon-14 (R-14).

Pre-historic age

The history of human development is very interesting. That period of human development whose written records are available is known as “historic age”. However, the mankind has lived on this earth for millions of years, even prior that historic age for which we do not have any written records. In this way, the remote past whose records are not available is known as pre-historic age or pre-history.